Selasa, 31 Januari 2012
Islam in Andalusia
Islam in Andalusia
Before the arrival of the Muslims, is an empire Hispania Iberian region dominated by the Christian Visigoths. In the year 711 AD, the Umayyad troops mostly Moors of Northwest Africa, invaded Hispania Tariq ibn Ziyad led by generals, and under the orders of the Umayyad Caliphate in Damascus.
These troops landed at Gibraltar on April 30, and continue heading north. After defeating King Roderic of the Visigoths at the Battle of Guadalete (711 M), the rule of Islam continues to grow until the year 719 AD Only the Galician, Basque and Asturias are not subject to Islamic rule. After that, the Muslims crossed the Pyrenees to conquer France, but was stopped by the Franks in the battle of Tours (732 AD). Umayyad Muslim-dominated area is called the province of Al-Andalus, consisting of Spain, Portugal and southern France called now.
A. Political Developments
At first, Al-Andalus is controlled by a trustee Yusuf al-Fihri (governor) appointed by the Caliph in Damascus, with the usual three-year term. But in 740an AD, there was a civil war that led to the weakening power of the Caliph. And in the year 746 AD, Yusuf al-Fihri won the civil war, became a ruler who is not tied to the government in Damascus.
In the year 750 AD, the sons of the Abbasid overthrow the Umayyad in Damascus, and seized control of the regions of Arabia. But in the year 756 AD, Abdurrahman I (Ad-Dakhil) depose Yusuf al-Fihri, and became ruler of Cordova with the title of Amir of Cordoba. Rahman refused to submit to the newly formed Abbasid caliphate, as Abbasid forces had killed most of his family.
He reigned for 30 years, but has a weak power in Al-Andalus and he tried to suppress the resistance from supporters of Al-Fihri and the Abbasid caliphate.
Over the next half century, his descendants succeeded him as Amir of Cordoba, who has written authority over the entire Al-Andalus, sometimes even covering the western part of North Africa. In fact, the power of Emir of Cordoba, especially in the area adjacent to the Christians, often rise and fall of political experience, it depends on the skill of the ruling Amir. Amir Abdullah bin Muhammad even just to have power over Cordova only.
Abdullah's grandson, Abdur-Rahman III, succeeded him in the year 912 AD, and to quickly restore the Umayyads of al-Andalus and North Africa and even the west. In the year 929 AD he raised himself as the Caliph, so keamiran now have a position equivalent to the Abbasid caliphate in Baghdad and the Shiite caliphate in Tunis.
B. The caliphate
Andalusia - Spain occupied by Muslims at the time of Caliph Al-Walid rahimahullah (705-715 AD), one of the Umayyad caliphate based in Damascus, where the Muslims had previously been mengusasi North Africa. In the process of the conquest of Spain there are three heroes of Islam that can be said to be the most meritorious of Tharif ibn Malik, Tariq ibn Ziyad and Musa ibn Nushair Rahimahullahum ajma'in.
Tharif can be called a pioneer and investigator. He crossed the strait that lies between Morocco and the European continent with a single army, five hundred of whom were horsemen, they boarded four ships provided by Julian.
In the raid Tharif not get meaningful resistance. He won and returned to North Africa brought the spoils that are not few in number. Encouraged by the success Tharif and chaos that occurs in the body of the ruling Visigothic kingdom in Spain at the time, as well as a great encouragement to gain the spoils of war, Moses ibn Nushair in the year 711 AD sent troops to Spain as many as 7000 people under the leadership of Tariq ibn Ziyad rahimahullah.
Tariq ibn Ziyad rahimahullah more widely known as the conqueror of Spain when they were larger and more tangible results. His force consisted of most of the barbarian tribes that are supported by Musa ibn Nushair rahimahullah and some Arabs who sent the Caliph al-Walid rahimahullah. It then crossed the Strait of troops under the leadership of Tariq ibn Ziyad rahimahullah. A mountain of Tariq and his men first landed and set up his army, known by the name of Gibraltar (Jabal Tariq).
With mastered this area, then opened the door widely to enter Spain. In the battle at a place called Bakkah, King Roderick can be defeated. From there rahimahullah Tariq and his army continued to conquer the important cities, such as Cordova, Granada and Toledo (capital of Gothic empire at that time). Before Tariq rahimahullah managed to conquer the city of Toledo, he asked for additional troops to Musa ibn Nushair rahimahullah in North Africa. Moses sent additional troops of 5000 personnel, so the number of troops entirely Tariq 12,000 people. This amount is not comparable to the Gothic army much larger, 100,000 people.
The first victory of Tariq ibn Ziyad is achieved by rahimahullah make way for the conquest of the region more broadly. To that end, Moses ibn Nushair rahimahullah feel the need to involve themselves in the battle arena with the intention of helping the struggle Tariq. With a great army, he set off across the strait, and passed one by one city that can be conquered. After Moses conquered rahimahullah Sidonia, Karmona, Seville, and Merida as well as defeating the ruling royal Gothic, Theodomir in Orihuela, she was joined by Tariq at Toledo. Furthermore, they managed to control all important cities in Spain, including its northern part, from Saragossa to Navarre.
The next wave of territorial expansion came during the reign of Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz rahimahullah year 99 H/717 AD This time the target is intended to control the area around the mountain Pyrenia and Southern France. Entrusted to the chief of Al-Samah rahimahullah, but his efforts failed and he himself was killed in the year 102 H. Furthermore, the chief handed over to Abdullah ibn Abd al-Ghafiqi rahimahullah. With his troops, he attacked the city Bordreu, Poiter, and from here he tried to attack the city of Tours. However, between the city of Tours Poiter and that she was detained by Charles Martel, so that the invasion of France failed and the troops he led retreat back to Spain.
After that, there are still attacks, such as the Avirignon year 734 AD, to Lyons in 743 AD, and the islands located in the Mediterranean, Majorca, Corsia, Sardinia, Creta, Rhodes, Cyprus and parts of Sicily also fell into the hands of Bani Umayyad Islamic era. The second wave of the largest invasion of the Muslims which motion starts at the beginning of the 8th century AD, has been reaching out to all of Spain and extends far reaches of Central France and the important parts of Italy. The victories achieved Muslims look so easy. It can not be separated from the external and internal factors are favorable.
What is meant by an external factor is a condition contained in his own country Spain. During the Spanish conquest by the Muslims, the social, political, and economic development of this country are in a sorry state. Politically, the Spanish region torn apart and divided into several small countries. Along with the Gothic rulers being intolerant of religious sects that embraced by the authorities, namely the flow of Monophysites, especially against other faiths, Judaism. Adherents of Judaism which is the largest part of the population of Spain was forced to be baptized according to the Christian religion. Are not willing to be tortured, and brutally murdered.
People were divided into the class system, so the situation overwhelmed by poverty, oppression, and lack of equal rights. In a situation like that, the liberator of the oppressed awaiting the arrival of interpreters, and interpreters pembebasnya they found the people of Islam. With regard to the Amer Ali, as quoted by Imamuddin said, when Africa (East and West) enjoy the convenience in terms of material, togetherness, justice, and welfare, neighbors in the peninsula of Spain is in a sad state under the rule of iron fist ruler Visighotic. On the other hand, the kingdom is in turmoil, which inflicts the suffering of the people. As a result of cruel treatment, the colonies became an important Jewish places of resistance and rebellion. Divisions within the country Spanish is a lot of help to the success of the intervention of Islam in the year 711 AD The split was very much coraknya, and existed long before the Gothic kingdom stand.
Economic circumstances exacerbate the political divisions of society. When Islam came to Spain, the economic society in a state of paralysis. In fact, when Spain was still under Roman rule (Byzantine), thanks to the fertility of the soil, agriculture developed rapidly. Similarly, mining, industry and commerce as it is supported by good transport facilities. However, after the Spanish under the authority of the kingdom of the Goths, crippled the economy and public welfare decreases. Hektaran left stranded with no uncultivated land, some factories closed, and between one region and other regions hardest-hit due to the roads do not receive treatment.
Poor social conditions, economic, and religious was mainly caused by the chaotic political situation. The worst conditions occurred in the reign of King Roderick, the last King of the Goths who defeated Islam. Early destruction of the kingdom when King Roderick Ghoth is moving its capital from Seville to Toledo, while Witiza, who was a ruler of the territory of Toledo, was dismissed just like that. This situation provoked anger from Oppas and Achila, brother and son Witiza. Both then rose gather strength to overthrow Roderick. They went to North Africa and joined with the Muslims.
Meanwhile there is also conflict between the Queen of Julian Roderick, a former ruler of Septah. Julian also joined with the Muslims in North Africa and support the efforts of Muslims to master Spanish, Julian even lend four ships used by Tharif, Tariq and Musa Rahimahumullah.
This benefit is that the Muslim army consisting of soldiers Roderick oppressed slaves no longer have the spirit of war Moreover, the Jews who had been depressed also held a fellowship and provide assistance for the struggle of the Muslims.
As is the internal factor is a condition contained in the ruling body, tokon figures of warriors and soldiers of Islam who are involved in the conquest of Spain in particular. The leaders are powerful figures, army compact, united, and confident. They were capable, brave, and steadfast in the face of every issue. Equally important are the teachings of Islam that indicated the soldiers of Islam, namely tolerance, fraternity and mutual help. The attitude of religious tolerance and brotherhood contained in the person of the Muslims that led to the Spanish population welcomed the presence of Islam there.
C. Development of Civilization
Muslims in Spain has achieved a resounding victory, they gained many achievements, even his influence to bring Europe and the world to advance a more complex, especially in terms of intellectual progress.
In a period of more than seven centuries of Muslim rule in Spain, Muslims have achieved glory there. Many of the achievements they gained, and even bring European influence, and then bring the world to a more complex progress.
Progress Intellectual
Spain is a fertile country. Fertility is high economic income generation and in turn generate a lot of thinkers.
Spanish society of Islam is a pluralistic society consisting of:
- Arab communities (North and South)
- Al-Muwalladun (Spaniards who converted to Islam)
- Barbarian (Muslims from North Africa)
- Al-Shaqalibah (German mercenaries who sold to the ruler of Islam)
- Jewish
- Christian Arabs cultured Muzareb
- Christians who still oppose the presence of Islam
All communities, except the last, giving shares to the formation of intellectual Andalus cultural environment that gave birth to the Resurrection Scientific, literary, and physical development in Andalusia - Spain.
1. Philosophy
Islam in Spain has recorded a very brilliant piece of cultural history in the expanse of Islam. He serves as bridge crossings through which the Greco-Arab science into Europe in the 12th century. Interest in philosophy and science were developed in the 9th century AD during the reign of the Umayyad ruler of the 5th, Abdurrahman ibn Muhammad (832-886 AD).
On the initiative of al-Hakam (961-976 AD), the works of scientific and philosophical imported from the East in large numbers, so that Cordova with university libraries and universities are able to rival Baghdad as a major center of science in the Islamic world. What is done by the leaders of the Umayyad dynasty in Spain is a preparation for the birth of great philosophers in the period thereafter.
The final part of the 12th century AD saw the rise of a follower of Aristotle the largest in the arena of philosophy in Islam, Ibn Rushd of Cordova. He was born in 1126 AD and died in 1198 AD His trademark is the accuracy in interpreting the texts of Aristotle and prudence in wrestle chronic problems of philosophy and religious harmony. He is also expert with his work Bidayah fiqh al-Mujtahid.
2. Science
IImu-medical science, music, mathematics, astronomy, chemistry and others are also developing well. Abbas ibn Famas famous in chemistry and astronomy. He was first to discover the manufacture of glass from stone. Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-Naqqash well known in the science of astronomy. He can determine the timing of the eclipses of the sun and determine how long. He also managed to create a modern binoculars that can determine the distance between the solar system and stars. Ahmad ibn Ibas of Cordova is an expert in the field of medicine. Umm al-Hasan bint Abi Ja'far and al-Hafidz sister were two medical experts from among women.
In the field of history and geography, western Muslim region produced many famous thinkers, Ibn Jubair of Valencia (1145-1228 AD) wrote about the Muslim countries of the Mediterranean and Sicily and Ibn Batuthah of Tangier (1304-1377 AD) to reach the Indian and Chinese Pasai . Ibn al-Khatib (1317-1374 AD) compile a history of Granada, while Ibn Khaldun of Tunis is the formulator of the philosophy of history. All of the above historian residing in Spain, which then moved to Africa. That's some big names in science.
3. Fiqh
In the field of fiqh, Islamic Spain adherents are known as the Maliki school. Who introduced this school there is Ziad ibn Abdur-Rahman. Further development is determined by the Qadi Ibn Yahya during Abdurrahman Ibn Hisham. Fiqh other experts whom was Abu Bakr ibn al-Quthiyah, Munzir Ibn al-Sa'id Ibn Hazm Baluthi and famous.
4. Music and Art
In the field of music and sound, Islamic Spain reached brilliance with the character of al-Hasan Ibn Nafi that dijiluki Zaryab. Each time-hosted meetings and banquets, Zaryab always demonstrate his skill. He is also famous as a composer of songs. Dimiliknya science that was lowered to their children both male and female, and also to the slaves, so that his fame is widespread.
5. Language and Literature
Arabic has become the language of administration in the Islamic rule in Spain. It would be accepted by Muslims and non-Muslims. In fact, a native of Spain menomor emphasized their native language. They are also a lot of skilled and proficient in Arabic, both speaking and grammar skills. They include: Ibn Sayyidih, Aljiyah author Ibn Malik, Ibn Khuruf, Ibn al-Hajj, Abu Ali al-Isybili, Abu al-Hasan Ibn Usfur, and Abu Hayyan al-Ghamathi. Along with the progress of language, literary works appeared, such as Al-'Iqd Ibn al-Farid Abd Rabbih, al-Dzakhirahji Mahasin Ahl al-Jazirah Ibn Bassam, Kitab al-Qalaid the work of al-Fath ibn Khaqan, and many others.
Before the arrival of the Muslims, is an empire Hispania Iberian region dominated by the Christian Visigoths. In the year 711 AD, the Umayyad troops mostly Moors of Northwest Africa, invaded Hispania Tariq ibn Ziyad led by generals, and under the orders of the Umayyad Caliphate in Damascus.
These troops landed at Gibraltar on April 30, and continue heading north. After defeating King Roderic of the Visigoths at the Battle of Guadalete (711 M), the rule of Islam continues to grow until the year 719 AD Only the Galician, Basque and Asturias are not subject to Islamic rule. After that, the Muslims crossed the Pyrenees to conquer France, but was stopped by the Franks in the battle of Tours (732 AD). Umayyad Muslim-dominated area is called the province of Al-Andalus, consisting of Spain, Portugal and southern France called now.
A. Political Developments
At first, Al-Andalus is controlled by a trustee Yusuf al-Fihri (governor) appointed by the Caliph in Damascus, with the usual three-year term. But in 740an AD, there was a civil war that led to the weakening power of the Caliph. And in the year 746 AD, Yusuf al-Fihri won the civil war, became a ruler who is not tied to the government in Damascus.
In the year 750 AD, the sons of the Abbasid overthrow the Umayyad in Damascus, and seized control of the regions of Arabia. But in the year 756 AD, Abdurrahman I (Ad-Dakhil) depose Yusuf al-Fihri, and became ruler of Cordova with the title of Amir of Cordoba. Rahman refused to submit to the newly formed Abbasid caliphate, as Abbasid forces had killed most of his family.
He reigned for 30 years, but has a weak power in Al-Andalus and he tried to suppress the resistance from supporters of Al-Fihri and the Abbasid caliphate.
Over the next half century, his descendants succeeded him as Amir of Cordoba, who has written authority over the entire Al-Andalus, sometimes even covering the western part of North Africa. In fact, the power of Emir of Cordoba, especially in the area adjacent to the Christians, often rise and fall of political experience, it depends on the skill of the ruling Amir. Amir Abdullah bin Muhammad even just to have power over Cordova only.
Abdullah's grandson, Abdur-Rahman III, succeeded him in the year 912 AD, and to quickly restore the Umayyads of al-Andalus and North Africa and even the west. In the year 929 AD he raised himself as the Caliph, so keamiran now have a position equivalent to the Abbasid caliphate in Baghdad and the Shiite caliphate in Tunis.
B. The caliphate
Andalusia - Spain occupied by Muslims at the time of Caliph Al-Walid rahimahullah (705-715 AD), one of the Umayyad caliphate based in Damascus, where the Muslims had previously been mengusasi North Africa. In the process of the conquest of Spain there are three heroes of Islam that can be said to be the most meritorious of Tharif ibn Malik, Tariq ibn Ziyad and Musa ibn Nushair Rahimahullahum ajma'in.
Tharif can be called a pioneer and investigator. He crossed the strait that lies between Morocco and the European continent with a single army, five hundred of whom were horsemen, they boarded four ships provided by Julian.
In the raid Tharif not get meaningful resistance. He won and returned to North Africa brought the spoils that are not few in number. Encouraged by the success Tharif and chaos that occurs in the body of the ruling Visigothic kingdom in Spain at the time, as well as a great encouragement to gain the spoils of war, Moses ibn Nushair in the year 711 AD sent troops to Spain as many as 7000 people under the leadership of Tariq ibn Ziyad rahimahullah.
Tariq ibn Ziyad rahimahullah more widely known as the conqueror of Spain when they were larger and more tangible results. His force consisted of most of the barbarian tribes that are supported by Musa ibn Nushair rahimahullah and some Arabs who sent the Caliph al-Walid rahimahullah. It then crossed the Strait of troops under the leadership of Tariq ibn Ziyad rahimahullah. A mountain of Tariq and his men first landed and set up his army, known by the name of Gibraltar (Jabal Tariq).
With mastered this area, then opened the door widely to enter Spain. In the battle at a place called Bakkah, King Roderick can be defeated. From there rahimahullah Tariq and his army continued to conquer the important cities, such as Cordova, Granada and Toledo (capital of Gothic empire at that time). Before Tariq rahimahullah managed to conquer the city of Toledo, he asked for additional troops to Musa ibn Nushair rahimahullah in North Africa. Moses sent additional troops of 5000 personnel, so the number of troops entirely Tariq 12,000 people. This amount is not comparable to the Gothic army much larger, 100,000 people.
The first victory of Tariq ibn Ziyad is achieved by rahimahullah make way for the conquest of the region more broadly. To that end, Moses ibn Nushair rahimahullah feel the need to involve themselves in the battle arena with the intention of helping the struggle Tariq. With a great army, he set off across the strait, and passed one by one city that can be conquered. After Moses conquered rahimahullah Sidonia, Karmona, Seville, and Merida as well as defeating the ruling royal Gothic, Theodomir in Orihuela, she was joined by Tariq at Toledo. Furthermore, they managed to control all important cities in Spain, including its northern part, from Saragossa to Navarre.
The next wave of territorial expansion came during the reign of Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz rahimahullah year 99 H/717 AD This time the target is intended to control the area around the mountain Pyrenia and Southern France. Entrusted to the chief of Al-Samah rahimahullah, but his efforts failed and he himself was killed in the year 102 H. Furthermore, the chief handed over to Abdullah ibn Abd al-Ghafiqi rahimahullah. With his troops, he attacked the city Bordreu, Poiter, and from here he tried to attack the city of Tours. However, between the city of Tours Poiter and that she was detained by Charles Martel, so that the invasion of France failed and the troops he led retreat back to Spain.
After that, there are still attacks, such as the Avirignon year 734 AD, to Lyons in 743 AD, and the islands located in the Mediterranean, Majorca, Corsia, Sardinia, Creta, Rhodes, Cyprus and parts of Sicily also fell into the hands of Bani Umayyad Islamic era. The second wave of the largest invasion of the Muslims which motion starts at the beginning of the 8th century AD, has been reaching out to all of Spain and extends far reaches of Central France and the important parts of Italy. The victories achieved Muslims look so easy. It can not be separated from the external and internal factors are favorable.
What is meant by an external factor is a condition contained in his own country Spain. During the Spanish conquest by the Muslims, the social, political, and economic development of this country are in a sorry state. Politically, the Spanish region torn apart and divided into several small countries. Along with the Gothic rulers being intolerant of religious sects that embraced by the authorities, namely the flow of Monophysites, especially against other faiths, Judaism. Adherents of Judaism which is the largest part of the population of Spain was forced to be baptized according to the Christian religion. Are not willing to be tortured, and brutally murdered.
People were divided into the class system, so the situation overwhelmed by poverty, oppression, and lack of equal rights. In a situation like that, the liberator of the oppressed awaiting the arrival of interpreters, and interpreters pembebasnya they found the people of Islam. With regard to the Amer Ali, as quoted by Imamuddin said, when Africa (East and West) enjoy the convenience in terms of material, togetherness, justice, and welfare, neighbors in the peninsula of Spain is in a sad state under the rule of iron fist ruler Visighotic. On the other hand, the kingdom is in turmoil, which inflicts the suffering of the people. As a result of cruel treatment, the colonies became an important Jewish places of resistance and rebellion. Divisions within the country Spanish is a lot of help to the success of the intervention of Islam in the year 711 AD The split was very much coraknya, and existed long before the Gothic kingdom stand.
Economic circumstances exacerbate the political divisions of society. When Islam came to Spain, the economic society in a state of paralysis. In fact, when Spain was still under Roman rule (Byzantine), thanks to the fertility of the soil, agriculture developed rapidly. Similarly, mining, industry and commerce as it is supported by good transport facilities. However, after the Spanish under the authority of the kingdom of the Goths, crippled the economy and public welfare decreases. Hektaran left stranded with no uncultivated land, some factories closed, and between one region and other regions hardest-hit due to the roads do not receive treatment.
Poor social conditions, economic, and religious was mainly caused by the chaotic political situation. The worst conditions occurred in the reign of King Roderick, the last King of the Goths who defeated Islam. Early destruction of the kingdom when King Roderick Ghoth is moving its capital from Seville to Toledo, while Witiza, who was a ruler of the territory of Toledo, was dismissed just like that. This situation provoked anger from Oppas and Achila, brother and son Witiza. Both then rose gather strength to overthrow Roderick. They went to North Africa and joined with the Muslims.
Meanwhile there is also conflict between the Queen of Julian Roderick, a former ruler of Septah. Julian also joined with the Muslims in North Africa and support the efforts of Muslims to master Spanish, Julian even lend four ships used by Tharif, Tariq and Musa Rahimahumullah.
This benefit is that the Muslim army consisting of soldiers Roderick oppressed slaves no longer have the spirit of war Moreover, the Jews who had been depressed also held a fellowship and provide assistance for the struggle of the Muslims.
As is the internal factor is a condition contained in the ruling body, tokon figures of warriors and soldiers of Islam who are involved in the conquest of Spain in particular. The leaders are powerful figures, army compact, united, and confident. They were capable, brave, and steadfast in the face of every issue. Equally important are the teachings of Islam that indicated the soldiers of Islam, namely tolerance, fraternity and mutual help. The attitude of religious tolerance and brotherhood contained in the person of the Muslims that led to the Spanish population welcomed the presence of Islam there.
C. Development of Civilization
Muslims in Spain has achieved a resounding victory, they gained many achievements, even his influence to bring Europe and the world to advance a more complex, especially in terms of intellectual progress.
In a period of more than seven centuries of Muslim rule in Spain, Muslims have achieved glory there. Many of the achievements they gained, and even bring European influence, and then bring the world to a more complex progress.
Progress Intellectual
Spain is a fertile country. Fertility is high economic income generation and in turn generate a lot of thinkers.
Spanish society of Islam is a pluralistic society consisting of:
- Arab communities (North and South)
- Al-Muwalladun (Spaniards who converted to Islam)
- Barbarian (Muslims from North Africa)
- Al-Shaqalibah (German mercenaries who sold to the ruler of Islam)
- Jewish
- Christian Arabs cultured Muzareb
- Christians who still oppose the presence of Islam
All communities, except the last, giving shares to the formation of intellectual Andalus cultural environment that gave birth to the Resurrection Scientific, literary, and physical development in Andalusia - Spain.
1. Philosophy
Islam in Spain has recorded a very brilliant piece of cultural history in the expanse of Islam. He serves as bridge crossings through which the Greco-Arab science into Europe in the 12th century. Interest in philosophy and science were developed in the 9th century AD during the reign of the Umayyad ruler of the 5th, Abdurrahman ibn Muhammad (832-886 AD).
On the initiative of al-Hakam (961-976 AD), the works of scientific and philosophical imported from the East in large numbers, so that Cordova with university libraries and universities are able to rival Baghdad as a major center of science in the Islamic world. What is done by the leaders of the Umayyad dynasty in Spain is a preparation for the birth of great philosophers in the period thereafter.
The final part of the 12th century AD saw the rise of a follower of Aristotle the largest in the arena of philosophy in Islam, Ibn Rushd of Cordova. He was born in 1126 AD and died in 1198 AD His trademark is the accuracy in interpreting the texts of Aristotle and prudence in wrestle chronic problems of philosophy and religious harmony. He is also expert with his work Bidayah fiqh al-Mujtahid.
2. Science
IImu-medical science, music, mathematics, astronomy, chemistry and others are also developing well. Abbas ibn Famas famous in chemistry and astronomy. He was first to discover the manufacture of glass from stone. Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-Naqqash well known in the science of astronomy. He can determine the timing of the eclipses of the sun and determine how long. He also managed to create a modern binoculars that can determine the distance between the solar system and stars. Ahmad ibn Ibas of Cordova is an expert in the field of medicine. Umm al-Hasan bint Abi Ja'far and al-Hafidz sister were two medical experts from among women.
In the field of history and geography, western Muslim region produced many famous thinkers, Ibn Jubair of Valencia (1145-1228 AD) wrote about the Muslim countries of the Mediterranean and Sicily and Ibn Batuthah of Tangier (1304-1377 AD) to reach the Indian and Chinese Pasai . Ibn al-Khatib (1317-1374 AD) compile a history of Granada, while Ibn Khaldun of Tunis is the formulator of the philosophy of history. All of the above historian residing in Spain, which then moved to Africa. That's some big names in science.
3. Fiqh
In the field of fiqh, Islamic Spain adherents are known as the Maliki school. Who introduced this school there is Ziad ibn Abdur-Rahman. Further development is determined by the Qadi Ibn Yahya during Abdurrahman Ibn Hisham. Fiqh other experts whom was Abu Bakr ibn al-Quthiyah, Munzir Ibn al-Sa'id Ibn Hazm Baluthi and famous.
4. Music and Art
In the field of music and sound, Islamic Spain reached brilliance with the character of al-Hasan Ibn Nafi that dijiluki Zaryab. Each time-hosted meetings and banquets, Zaryab always demonstrate his skill. He is also famous as a composer of songs. Dimiliknya science that was lowered to their children both male and female, and also to the slaves, so that his fame is widespread.
5. Language and Literature
Arabic has become the language of administration in the Islamic rule in Spain. It would be accepted by Muslims and non-Muslims. In fact, a native of Spain menomor emphasized their native language. They are also a lot of skilled and proficient in Arabic, both speaking and grammar skills. They include: Ibn Sayyidih, Aljiyah author Ibn Malik, Ibn Khuruf, Ibn al-Hajj, Abu Ali al-Isybili, Abu al-Hasan Ibn Usfur, and Abu Hayyan al-Ghamathi. Along with the progress of language, literary works appeared, such as Al-'Iqd Ibn al-Farid Abd Rabbih, al-Dzakhirahji Mahasin Ahl al-Jazirah Ibn Bassam, Kitab al-Qalaid the work of al-Fath ibn Khaqan, and many others.
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kelpa sawit
Kelapa Sawit | Minyak Kelapa Sawit | Pohon Kelapa Sawit | Budidaya Tanaman Kelapa Sawit | Keuntungan Tanaman Kelapa Sawit | Palm Oil | Palm Oil | Palm Tree | Palm Cultivation | Benefits of Palm Oil Plants
Kelapa sawit (Elaeis) adalah tumbuhan industri penting penghasil minyak masak, minyak industri, maupun bahan bakar (biodiesel). Perkebunannya menghasilkan keuntungan besar sehingga banyak hutan dan perkebunan lama dikonversi menjadi perkebunan kelapa sawit. Indonesia adalah penghasil minyak kelapa sawit terbesar di dunia. Di Indonesia penyebarannya di daerah Aceh, pantai timur Sumatra, Jawa, dan Sulawesi.
Kelapa sawit berbentuk pohon. Tingginya dapat mencapai 24 meter. Akar serabut tanaman kelapa sawit mengarah ke bawah dan samping. Selain itu juga terdapat beberapa akar napas yang tumbuh mengarah ke samping atas untuk mendapatkan tambahan aerasi. Seperti jenis palma lainnya, daunnya tersusun majemuk menyirip. Daun berwarna hijau tua dan pelepah berwarna sedikit lebih muda. Penampilannya agak mirip dengan tanaman salak, hanya saja dengan duri yang tidak terlalu keras dan tajam. Batang tanaman diselimuti bekas pelepah hingga umur 12 tahun. Setelah umur 12 tahun pelapah yang mengering akan terlepas sehingga penampilan menjadi mirip dengan kelapa. Bunga jantan dan betina terpisah namun berada pada satu pohon (monoecious diclin) dan memiliki waktu pematangan berbeda sehingga sangat jarang terjadi penyerbukan sendiri. Bunga jantan memiliki bentuk lancip dan panjang sementara bunga betina terlihat lebih besar dan mekar.
Tanaman sawit dengan tipe cangkang pisifera bersifat female steril sehingga sangat jarang menghasilkan tandan buah dan dalam produksi benih unggul digunakan sebagai tetua jantan.
Buah sawit mempunyai warna bervariasi dari hitam, ungu, hingga merah tergantung bibit yang digunakan. Buah bergerombol dalam tandan yang muncul dari tiap pelapah. Minyak dihasilkan oleh buah. Kandungan minyak bertambah sesuai kematangan buah. Setelah melewati fase matang, kandungan asam lemak bebas (FFA, free fatty acid) akan meningkat dan buah akan rontok dengan sendirinya.
Buah terdiri dari tiga lapisan:
- Eksoskarp, bagian kulit buah berwarna kemerahan dan licin.
- Mesoskarp, serabut buah
- Endoskarp, cangkang pelindung inti. Inti sawit (kernel, yang sebetulnya adalah biji) merupakan endosperma dan embrio dengan kandungan minyak inti berkualitas tinggi.
Kelapa sawit berkembang biak dengan cara generatif. Buah sawit matang pada kondisi tertentu embrionya akan berkecambah menghasilkan tunas (plumula) dan bakal akar (radikula).
Syarat hidup
Habitat aslinya adalah daerah semak belukar. Sawit dapat tumbuh dengan baik di daerah tropis (15° LU - 15° LS). Tanaman ini tumbuh sempurna di ketinggian 0-500 m dari permukaan laut dengan kelembaban 80-90%. Sawit membutuhkan iklim dengan curah hujan stabil, 2000-2500 mm setahun, yaitu daerah yang tidak tergenang air saat hujan dan tidak kekeringan saat kemarau. Pola curah hujan tahunan memengaruhi perilaku pembungaan dan produksi buah sawit.
Jenis Kelapa Sawit
Kelapa sawit yang dibudidayakan terdiri dari dua jenis: E. guineensis dan E. oleifera. Jenis pertama adalah yang pertama kali dan terluas dibudidayakan orang. E. oleifera sekarang mulai dibudidayakan pula untuk menambah keanekaragaman sumber daya genetik. Penangkar seringkali melihat tipe kelapa sawit berdasarkan ketebalan cangkang, yang terdiri dari :
- Dura,
- Pisifera, dan
- Tenera.
Dura merupakan sawit yang buahnya memiliki cangkang tebal sehingga dianggap memperpendek umur mesin pengolah namun biasanya tandan buahnya besar-besar dan kandungan minyak per tandannya berkisar 18%. Pisifera buahnya tidak memiliki cangkang namun bunga betinanya steril sehingga sangat jarang menghasilkan buah. Tenera adalah persilangan antara induk Dura dan jantan Pisifera. Jenis ini dianggap bibit unggul sebab melengkapi kekurangan masing-masing induk dengan sifat cangkang buah tipis namun bunga betinanya tetap fertil. Beberapa tenera unggul memiliki persentase daging per buahnya mencapai 90% dan kandungan minyak per tandannya dapat mencapai 28%.
Untuk pembibitan massal, sekarang digunakan teknik kultur jaringan.
Minyak sawit digunakan sebagai bahan baku minyak makan, margarin, sabun, kosmetika, industri baja, kawat, radio, kulit dan industri farmasi. Minyak sawit dapat digunakan untuk begitu beragam peruntukannya karena keunggulan sifat yang dimilikinya yaitu tahan oksidasi dengan tekanan tinggi, mampu melarutkan bahan kimia yang tidak larut oleh bahan pelarut lainnya, mempunyai daya melapis yang tinggi dan tidak menimbulkan iritasi pada tubuh dalam bidang kosmetik.
Bagian yang paling populer untuk diolah dari kelapa sawit adalah buah. Bagian daging buah menghasilkan minyak kelapa sawit mentah yang diolah menjadi bahan baku minyak goreng dan berbagai jenis turunannya. Kelebihan minyak nabati dari sawit adalah harga yang murah, rendah kolesterol, dan memiliki kandungan karoten tinggi. Minyak sawit juga diolah menjadi bahan baku margarin.
Minyak inti menjadi bahan baku minyak alkohol dan industri kosmetika. Bunga dan buahnya berupa tandan, bercabang banyak. Buahnya kecil, bila masak berwarna merah kehitaman. Daging buahnya padat. Daging dan kulit buahnya mengandung minyak. Minyaknya itu digunakan sebagai bahan minyak goreng, sabun, dan lilin. Ampasnya dimanfaatkan untuk makanan ternak. Ampas yang disebut bungkil inti sawit itu digunakan sebagai salah satu bahan pembuatan makanan ayam. Tempurungnya digunakan sebagai bahan bakar dan arang.
Buah diproses dengan membuat lunak bagian daging buah dengan temperatur 90 °C. Daging yang telah melunak dipaksa untuk berpisah dengan bagian inti dan cangkang dengan pressing pada mesin silinder berlubang. Daging inti dan cangkang dipisahkan dengan pemanasan dan teknik pressing. Setelah itu dialirkan ke dalam lumpur sehingga sisa cangkang akan turun ke bagian bawah lumpur.
Sisa pengolahan buah sawit sangat potensial menjadi bahan campuran makanan ternak dan difermentasikan menjadi kompos.
Kelapa sawit didatangkan ke Indonesia oleh pemerintah Hindia Belanda pada tahun 1848. Beberapa bijinya ditanam di Kebun Raya Bogor, sementara sisa benihnya ditanam di tepi-tepi jalan sebagai tanaman hias di Deli, Sumatera Utara pada tahun 1870-an. Pada saat yang bersamaan meningkatlah permintaan minyak nabati akibat Revolusi Industri pertengahan abad ke-19. Dari sini kemudian muncul ide membuat perkebunan kelapa sawit berdasarkan tumbuhan seleksi dari Bogor dan Deli, maka dikenallah jenis sawit "Deli Dura".
Pada tahun 1911, kelapa sawit mulai diusahakan dan dibudidayakan secara komersial dengan perintisnya di Hindia Belanda adalah Adrien Hallet, seorang Belgia, yang lalu diikuti oleh K. Schadt. Perkebunan kelapa sawit pertama berlokasi di Pantai Timur Sumatera (Deli) dan Aceh. Luas areal perkebunan mencapai 5.123 ha. Pusat pemuliaan dan penangkaran kemudian didirikan di Marihat (terkenal sebagai AVROS), Sumatera Utara dan di Rantau Panjang, Kuala Selangor, Malaya pada 1911-1912. Di Malaya, perkebunan pertama dibuka pada tahun 1917 di Ladang Tenmaran, Kuala Selangor menggunakan benih dura Deli dari Rantau Panjang. Di Afrika Barat sendiri penanaman kelapa sawit besar-besaran baru dimulai tahun 1911.
Hingga menjelang pendudukan Jepang, Hindia Belanda merupakan pemasok utama minyak sawit dunia. Semenjak pendudukan Jepang, produksi merosot hingga tinggal seperlima dari angka tahun 1940.
Usaha peningkatan pada masa Republik dilakukan dengan program Bumil (buruh-militer) yang tidak berhasil meningkatkan hasil, dan pemasok utama kemudian diambil alih Malaya (lalu Malaysia).
Baru semenjak era Orde Baru perluasan areal penanaman digalakkan, dipadukan dengan sistem PIR Perkebunan. Perluasan areal perkebunan kelapa sawit terus berlanjut akibat meningkatnya harga minyak bumi sehingga peran minyak nabati meningkat sebagai energi alternatif.
Beberapa pohon kelapa sawit yang ditanam di Kebun Botani Bogor hingga sekarang masih hidup, dengan ketinggian sekitar 12m, dan merupakan kelapa sawit tertua di Asia Tenggara yang berasal dari Afrika.
P E M B I B I T A N
Pengecambahan Biji.
- Biji dipanaskan dalam germinator selama 60 hari dengan suhu tetap 39oC dan kadar air 18%.
- Kemudian biji direndam dalam air mengalir selama 6 hari, hingga kadar air naik menjadi 24%.
- Selanjutnya biji dikeringkan selama 3 jam dalam ruangan yang teduh.
- Biji dimasukkan dalam kantong plastik ukuran 38 x 39 cm sebanyak 500 biji, kemudian ditutup rapat
- Setelah 10-14 hari, biji mulai berkecambah.
- Biji yang belum berkecambah pada umur 30 hari dibuang saja.
- Kecambah yang tumbuh normal dan sehat, warnanya kekuning-kuningan, tumbuhnya lurus serta bakal daun dan bakal akarnya berlawanan arah.
Persemaian dan Pembibitan
- Kecambah dipindahkan kekantong plastik ukuran 14 x 22 cm dengan tebal 0,08 mm.
- Isilah polybag dengan tanah lapisan atas yang dibersihkan dari kotoran dan dihancurkan sebelumnya.
- Lakukan penyiraman polybag sebelum penanaman kecambah dan selanjutnya pada setiap pagi dan sore setelah penanaman.
- Buatlah lobang tanam sedalam 3 cm.
- Buatlah naungan persemaian setinggi 2,5 m
- Setelah bibit berumur 3 bulan dipindahkan kedalam polybag yang besar dengan ukuran 40 x 50 cm, tebal 0,2 mm.
PERSIAPAN LAHAN
- Lahan diolah sebaik mungkin, dibersihkan dari semak-semak dan rumput-rumput liar.
- Buatlah lobang tanam dengan ukuran 40 x 40 x 40 cm atau 60 x 60 x 60 cm, 2 minggu sebelum tanam dengan jarak 9 x 9 x 9 m membentuk segitiga sama sisi.
- Tanah galian bagian atas dicampur dengan pupuk fosfat sebanyak 1 kg/lobang.
- Lobang tanam ditutup kembali dan jangan dipadatkan.
P E N A N A M A N
- Masukkan bibit ke dalam lobang dengan hati-hati dan kantong plastik dibuka.
- Lobang ditimbun dengan tanah, tidak boleh diinjak-injak agar tidak terjadi kerusakan.
- Bibit yang tingginya lebih dari 150 cm, daunnya dipotong untuk mengurangi penguapan.
- Penanaman sebaiknya dilakukan pada awal musim penghujan.
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islam di andalusia
ISLAM DI ANDALUSIA
Sebelum kedatangan umat Islam, daerah Iberia merupakan kerajaan Hispania yang dikuasai oleh orang Kristen Visigoth. Pada tahun 711 M, pasukan Umayyah yang sebagian besar merupakan bangsa Moor dari Afrika Barat Laut, menyerbu Hispania dipimpin jenderal Tariq bin Ziyad, dan dibawah perintah dari Kekhalifahan Umayyah di Damaskus.
Pasukan ini mendarat di Gibraltar pada 30 April, dan terus menuju utara. Setelah mengalahkan Raja Roderic dari Visigoth dalam Pertempuran Guadalete ( 711 M ), kekuasaan Islam terus berkembang hingga pada tahun 719 M. Hanya daerah Galicia, Basque dan Asturias yang tidak tunduk kepada kekuasaan Islam. Setelah itu, pasukan Islam menyeberangi Pirenia untuk menaklukkan Perancis, namun berhasil dihentikan oleh kaum Frank dalam pertempuran Tours (732 M). Daerah yang dikuasai Muslim Umayyah ini disebut provinsi Al-Andalus, terdiri dari Spanyol, Portugal dan Perancis bagian selatan yang disebut sekarang.
A. Perkembangan Politik
Pada awalnya, Al-Andalus dikuasai oleh seorang wali Yusuf Al-Fihri (gubernur) yang ditunjuk oleh Khalifah di Damaskus, dengan masa jabatan biasanya 3 tahun. Namun pada tahun 740an M, terjadi perang saudara yang menyebabkan melemahnya kekuasaan Khalifah. Dan pada tahun 746 M, Yusuf Al-Fihri memenangkan perang saudara tersebut, menjadi seorang penguasa yang tidak terikat kepada pemerintahan di Damaskus.
Pada tahun 750 M, bani Abbasiyah menjatuhkan pemerintahan Umayyah di Damaskus, dan merebut kekuasaan atas daerah-daerah Arabia. Namun pada tahun 756 M, Abdurrahman I (Ad-Dakhil) melengserkan Yusuf Al-Fihri, dan menjadi penguasa Kordoba dengan gelar Amir Kordoba. Abdurrahman menolak untuk tunduk kepada kekhalifahan Abbasiyah yang baru terbentuk, karena pasukan Abbasiyah telah membunuh sebagian besar keluarganya.
Ia memerintah selama 30 tahun, namun memiliki kekuasaan yang lemah di Al-Andalus dan ia berusaha menekan perlawanan dari pendukung Al-Fihri maupun khalifah Abbasiyah.
Selama satu setengah abad berikutnya, keturunannya menggantikannya sebagai Amir Kordoba, yang memiliki kekuasaan tertulis atas seluruh Al-Andalus bahkan kadang-kadang meliputi Afrika Utara bagian barat. Pada kenyataannya, kekuasaan Amir Kordoba, terutama di daerah yang berbatasan dengan kaum Kristen, sering mengalami naik-turun politik, itu tergantung kecakapan dari sang Amir yang sedang berkuasa. Amir Abdullah bin Muhammad bahkan hanya memiliki kekuasaan atas Kordoba saja.
Cucu Abdullah, Abdurrahman III, menggantikannya pada tahun 912 M, dan dengan cepat mengembalikan kekuasaan Umayyah atas Al-Andalus dan bahkan Afrika Utara bagian barat. Pada tahun 929 M ia mengangkat dirinya sebagai Khalifah, sehingga keamiran ini sekarang memiliki kedudukan setara dengan kekhalifahan Abbasiyah di Baghdad dan kekhalifahan Syi'ah di Tunis.
B. Masa kekhalifahan
Andalusia - Spanyol diduduki umat Islam pada zaman khalifah Al-Walid Rahimahullah (705-715 M), salah seorang khalifah dari Bani Umayyah yang berpusat di Damaskus, dimana Ummat Islam sebelumnya telah mengusasi Afrika Utara. Dalam proses penaklukan Spanyol ini terdapat tiga pahlawan Islam yang dapat dikatakan paling berjasa yaitu Tharif ibn Malik, Thariq ibn Ziyad, dan Musa ibn Nushair Rahimahullahum ajma’in.
Tharif dapat disebut sebagai perintis dan penyelidik. Ia menyeberangi selat yang berada di antara Maroko dan benua Eropa itu dengan satu pasukan perang, lima ratus orang diantaranya adalah tentara berkuda, mereka menaiki empat buah kapal yang disediakan oleh Julian.
Dalam penyerbuan itu Tharif tidak mendapat perlawanan yang berarti. Ia menang dan kembali ke Afrika Utara membawa harta rampasan yang tidak sedikit jumlahnya. Didorong oleh keberhasilan Tharif dan kemelut yang terjadi dalam tubuh kerajaan Visigothic yang berkuasa di Spanyol pada saat itu, serta dorongan yang besar untuk memperoleh harta rampasan perang, Musa ibn Nushair pada tahun 711 M mengirim pasukan ke spanyol sebanyak 7000 orang di bawah pimpinan Thariq ibn Ziyad Rahimahullah.
Thariq ibn Ziyad Rahimahullah lebih banyak dikenal sebagai penakluk Spanyol karena pasukannya lebih besar dan hasilnya lebih nyata. Pasukannya terdiri dari sebagian besar suku Barbar yang didukung oleh Musa ibn Nushair Rahimahullah dan sebagian lagi orang Arab yang dikirim Khalifah al-Walid Rahimahullah. Pasukan itu kemudian menyeberangi Selat di bawah pimpinan Thariq ibn Ziyad Rahimahullah. Sebuah gunung tempat pertama kali Thariq dan pasukannya mendarat dan menyiapkan pasukannya, dikenal dengan nama Gibraltar (Jabal Thariq).
Dengan dikuasainya daerah ini, maka terbukalah pintu secara luas untuk memasuki Spanyol. Dalam pertempuran di suatu tempat yang bernama Bakkah, Raja Roderick dapat dikalahkan. Dari situ Thariq Rahimahullah dan pasukannya terus menaklukkan kota-kota penting, seperti Cordova, Granada dan Toledo (ibu kota kerajaan Gothik saat itu). Sebelum Thariq Rahimahullah berhasil menaklukkan kota Toledo, ia meminta tambahan pasukan kepada Musa ibn Nushair Rahimahullah di Afrika Utara. Musa mengirimkan tambahan pasukan sebanyak 5000 personel, sehingga jumlah pasukan Thariq seluruhnya 12.000 orang. Jumlah ini belum sebanding dengan pasukan Gothik yang jauh lebih besar, 100.000 orang.
Kemenangan pertama yang dicapai oleh Thariq ibn Ziyad Rahimahullah membuat jalan untuk penaklukan wilayah yang lebih luas lagi. Untuk itu, Musa ibn Nushair Rahimahullah merasa perlu melibatkan diri dalam gelanggang pertempuran dengan maksud membantu perjuangan Thariq. Dengan suatu pasukan yang besar, ia berangkat menyeberangi selat itu, dan satu persatu kota yang dilewatinya dapat ditaklukkannya. Setelah Musa Rahimahullah berhasil menaklukkan Sidonia, Karmona, Seville, dan Merida serta mengalahkan penguasa kerajaan Gothic, Theodomir di Orihuela, ia bergabung dengan Thariq di Toledo. Selanjutnya, keduanya berhasil menguasai seluruh kota penting di Spanyol, termasuk bagian utaranya, mulai dari Saragosa sampai Navarre.
Gelombang perluasan wilayah berikutnya muncul pada masa pemerintahan Khalifah Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz Rahimahullah tahun 99 H/717 M. Kali ini sasaran ditujukan untuk menguasai daerah sekitar pegunungan Pyrenia dan Perancis Selatan. Pimpinan pasukan dipercayakan kepada Al-Samah Rahimahullah, tetapi usahanya itu gagal dan ia sendiri terbunuh pada tahun 102 H. Selanjutnya, pimpinan pasukan diserahkan kepada Abdurrahman ibn Abdullah al-Ghafiqi Rahimahullah. Dengan pasukannya, ia menyerang kota Bordreu, Poiter, dan dari sini ia mencoba menyerang kota Tours. Akan tetapi, diantara kota Poiter dan Tours itu ia ditahan oleh Charles Martel, sehingga penyerangan ke Perancis gagal dan tentara yang dipimpinnya mundur kembali ke Spanyol.
Sesudah itu, masih juga terdapat penyerangan-penyerangan, seperti ke Avirignon tahun 734 M, ke Lyon tahun 743 M, dan pulau-pulau yang terdapat di Laut Tengah, Majorca, Corsia, Sardinia, Creta, Rhodes, Cyprus dan sebagian dari Sicilia juga jatuh ke tangan Islam di zaman Bani Umayah. Gelombang kedua terbesar dari penyerbuan kaum Muslimin yang geraknya dimulai pada permulaan abad ke-8 M ini, telah menjangkau seluruh Spanyol dan melebar jauh menjangkau Perancis Tengah dan bagian-bagian penting dari Italia. Kemenangan-kemenangan yang dicapai umat Islam nampak begitu mudah. Hal itu tidak dapat dipisahkan dari adanya faktor eksternal dan internal yang menguntungkan.
Yang dimaksud dengan faktor eksternal adalah suatu kondisi yang terdapat di dalam negeri Spanyol sendiri. Pada masa penaklukan Spanyol oleh orang-orang Islam, kondisi sosial, politik, dan ekonomi negeri ini berada dalam keadaan menyedihkan. Secara politik, wilayah Spanyol terkoyak-koyak dan terbagi-bagi ke dalam beberapa negeri kecil. Bersamaan dengan itu penguasa Gothic bersikap tidak toleran terhadap aliran agama yang dianut oleh penguasa, yaitu aliran Monofisit, apalagi terhadap penganut agama lain, Yahudi. Penganut agama Yahudi yang merupakan bagian terbesar dari penduduk Spanyol dipaksa dibaptis menurut agama Kristen. Yang tidak bersedia disiksa, dan dibunuh secara brutal.
Rakyat dibagi-bagi ke dalam sistem kelas, sehingga keadaannya diliputi oleh kemelaratan, ketertindasan, dan ketiadaan persamaan hak. Di dalam situasi seperti itu, kaum tertindas menanti kedatangan juru pembebas, dan juru pembebasnya mereka temukan dari orang Islam. Berkenaan dengan itu Amer Ali, seperti dikutip oleh Imamuddin mengatakan, ketika Afrika (Timur dan Barat) menikmati kenyamanan dalam segi material, kebersamaan, keadilan, dan kesejahteraan, tetangganya di jazirah Spanyol berada dalam keadaan menyedihkan di bawah kekuasaan tangan besi penguasa Visighotic. Di sisi lain, kerajaan berada dalam kemelut yang membawa akibat pada penderitaan masyarakat. Akibat perlakuan yang keji, koloni-koloni Yahudi yang penting menjadi tempat-tempat perlawanan dan pemberontakkan. Perpecahan dalam negeri Spanyol ini banyak membantu keberhasilan campur tangan Islam di tahun 711 M. Perpecahan itu amat banyak coraknya, dan sudah ada jauh sebelum kerajaan Gothic berdiri.
Perpecahan politik memperburuk keadaan ekonomi masyarakat. Ketika Islam masuk ke Spanyol, ekonomi masyarakat dalam keadaan lumpuh. Padahal, sewaktu Spanyol masih berada di bawah pemerintahan Romawi (Byzantine), berkat kesuburan tanahnya, pertanian maju pesat. Demikian juga pertambangan, industri dan perdagangan karena didukung oleh sarana transportasi yang baik. Akan tetapi, setelah Spanyol berada di bawah kekuasaan kerajaan Goth, perekonomian lumpuh dan kesejahteraan masyarakat menurun. Hektaran tanah dibiarkan terlantar tanpa digarap, beberapa pabrik ditutup, dan antara satu daerah dan daerah lain sulit dilalui akibat jalan-jalan tidak mendapat perawatan.
Buruknya kondisi sosial, ekonomi, dan keagamaan tersebut terutama disebabkan oleh keadaan politik yang kacau. Kondisi terburuk terjadi pada masa pemerintahan Raja Roderick, Raja Goth terakhir yang dikalahkan Islam. Awal kehancuran kerajaan Ghoth adalah ketika Raja Roderick memindahkan ibu kota negaranya dari Seville ke Toledo, sementara Witiza, yang saat itu menjadi penguasa atas wilayah Toledo, diberhentikan begitu saja. Keadaan ini memancing amarah dari Oppas dan Achila, kakak dan anak Witiza. Keduanya kemudian bangkit menghimpun kekuatan untuk menjatuhkan Roderick. Mereka pergi ke Afrika Utara dan bergabung dengan kaum muslimin.
Sementara itu terjadi pula konflik antara Roderick dengan Ratu Julian, mantan penguasa wilayah Septah. Julian juga bergabung dengan kaum Muslimin di Afrika Utara dan mendukung usaha umat Islam untuk menguasai Spanyol, Julian bahkan memberikan pinjaman empat buah kapal yang dipakai oleh Tharif, Tariq dan Musa Rahimahumullah.
Hal menguntungkan tentara Islam lainnya adalah bahwa tentara Roderick yang terdiri dari para budak yang tertindas tidak lagi mempunyai semangat perang Selain itu, orang Yahudi yang selama ini tertekan juga mengadakan persekutuan dan memberikan bantuan bagi perjuangan kaum Muslimin.
Adapun yang dimaksud dengan faktor internal adalah suatu kondisi yang terdapat dalam tubuh penguasa, tokon-tokoh pejuang dan para prajurit Islam yang terlibat dalam penaklukan wilayah Spanyol pada khususnya. Para pemimpin adalah tokoh-tokoh yang kuat, tentaranya kompak, bersatu, dan penuh percaya diri. Mereka pun cakap, berani, dan tabah dalam menghadapi setiap persoalan. Yang tak kalah pentingnya adalah ajaran Islam yang ditunjukkan para tentara Islam, yaitu toleransi, persaudaraan, dan tolong menolong. Sikap toleransi agama dan persaudaraan yang terdapat dalam pribadi kaum muslimin itu menyebabkan penduduk Spanyol menyambut kehadiran Islam di sana.
C. Perkembangan Peradaban
Umat Islam di Spanyol telah mencapai kejayaan yang gemilang, banyak prestasi yang mereka peroleh, bahkan pengaruhnya membawa Eropa dan juga dunia kepada kemajuan yang lebih kompleks, terutama dalam hal kemajuan intelektual.
Dalam masa lebih dari tujuh abad kekuasaan Islam di Spanyol, umat Islam telah mencapai kejayaannya di sana. Banyak prestasi yang mereka peroleh, bahkan pengaruhnya membawa Eropa, dan kemudian membawa dunia kepada kemajuan yang lebih kompleks.
Kemajuan Intelektual
Spanyol adalah negeri yang subur. Kesuburan itu mendatangkan penghasilan ekonomi yang tinggi dan pada gilirannya banyak menghasilkan pemikir.
Masyarakat Spanyol Islam merupakan masyarakat majemuk yang terdiri dari :
- Komunitas-komunitas Arab (Utara dan Selatan)
- Al-Muwalladun (orang-orang Spanyol yang masuk Islam)
- Barbar (umat Islam yang berasal dari Afrika Utara)
- Al-Shaqalibah (tentara bayaran yang dijual Jerman kepada penguasa Islam)
- Yahudi
- Kristen Muzareb yang berbudaya Arab
- Kristen yang masih menentang kehadiran Islam
Semua komunitas itu, kecuali yang terakhir, memberikan saham intelektual terhadap terbentuknya lingkungan budaya Andalus yang melahirkan Kebangkitan Ilmiah, sastra, dan pembangunan fisik di Andalusia - Spanyol.
1. Filsafat
Islam di Spanyol telah mencatat satu lembaran budaya yang sangat brilian dalam bentangan sejarah Islam. Ia berperan sebagai jembatan penyeberangan yang dilalui ilmu pengetahuan Yunani-Arab ke Eropa pada abad ke-12. Minat terhadap filsafat dan ilmu pengetahuan mulai dikembangkan pada abad ke-9 M selama pemerintahan penguasa Bani Umayyah yang ke-5, Muhammad ibn Abdurrahman (832-886 M).
Atas inisiatif al-Hakam (961-976 M), karya-karya ilmiah dan filosofis diimpor dari Timur dalam jumlah besar, sehingga Cordova dengan perpustakaan dan universitas-universitasnya mampu menyaingi Baghdad sebagai pusat utama ilmu pengetahuan di dunia Islam. Apa yang dilakukan oleh para pemimpin dinasti Bani Umayyah di Spanyol ini merupakan persiapan untuk melahirkan filosof-filosof besar pada masa sesudahnya.
Bagian akhir abad ke-12 M menjadi saksi munculnya seorang pengikut Aristoteles yang terbesar di gelanggang filsafat dalam Islam, yaitu Ibn Rusyd dari Cordova. Ia lahir tahun 1126 M dan meninggal tahun 1198 M. Ciri khasnya adalah kecermatan dalam menafsirkan naskah-naskah Aristoteles dan kehati-hatian dalam menggeluti masalah-masalah menahun tentang keserasian filsafat dan agama. Dia juga ahli fiqh dengan karyanya Bidayah al- Mujtahid.
2. Sains
IImu-ilmu kedokteran, musik, matematika, astronomi, kimia dan lain-lain juga berkembang dengan baik. Abbas ibn Famas termasyhur dalam ilmu kimia dan astronomi. Ialah orang pertama yang menemukan pembuatan kaca dari batu. Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-Naqqash terkenal dalam ilmu astronomi. Ia dapat menentukan waktu terjadinya gerhana matahari dan menentukan berapa lamanya. Ia juga berhasil membuat teropong modern yang dapat menentukan jarak antara tata surya dan bintang-bintang. Ahmad ibn Ibas dari Cordova adalah ahli dalam bidang obat-obatan. Umm al-Hasan bint Abi Ja’far dan saudara perempuan al-Hafidz adalah dua orang ahli kedokteran dari kalangan wanita.
Dalam bidang sejarah dan geografi, wilayah Islam bagian barat melahirkan banyak pemikir terkenal, Ibn Jubair dari Valencia (1145-1228 M) menulis tentang negeri-negeri muslim Mediterania dan Sicilia dan Ibn Batuthah dari Tangier (1304-1377 M) mencapai Samudera Pasai dan Cina. Ibn al-Khatib (1317-1374 M) menyusun riwayat Granada, sedangkan Ibn Khaldun dari Tunis adalah perumus filsafat sejarah. Semua sejarawan di atas bertempat tinggal di Spanyol, yang kemudian pindah ke Afrika. Itulah sebagian nama-nama besar dalam bidang sains.
3. Fiqih
Dalam bidang fiqh, Spanyol Islam dikenal sebagai penganut mazhab Maliki. Yang memperkenalkan mazhab ini di sana adalah Ziad ibn Abdurrahman. Perkembangan selanjutnya ditentukan oleh Ibn Yahya yang menjadi Qadhi pada masa Hisyam Ibn Abdurrahman. Ahli-ahli Fiqh lainnya diantaranya adalah Abu Bakr ibn al-Quthiyah, Munzir Ibn Sa’id al-Baluthi dan Ibn Hazm yang terkenal.
4. Musik dan Kesenian
Dalam bidang musik dan suara, Spanyol Islam mencapai kecemerlangan dengan tokohnya al-Hasan Ibn Nafi yang dijiluki Zaryab. Setiap kali diselenggarkan pertemuan dan jamuan, Zaryab selalu tampil mempertunjukkan kebolehannya. Ia juga terkenal sebagai penggubah lagu. Ilmu yang dimiliknya itu diturunkan kepada anak-anaknya baik pria maupun wanita, dan juga kepada budak-budak, sehingga kemasyhurannya tersebar luas.
5. Bahasa dan Sastra
Bahasa Arab telah menjadi bahasa administrasi dalam pemerintahan Islam di Spanyol. Hal itu dapat diterima oleh orang-orang Islam dan non-Islam. Bahkan, penduduk asli Spanyol menomor duakan bahasa asli mereka. Mereka juga banyak yang ahli dan mahir dalam bahasa Arab, baik keterampilan berbicara maupun tata bahasa. Mereka itu antara lain: Ibn Sayyidih, Ibn Malik pengarang Aljiyah, Ibn Khuruf, Ibn al-Hajj, Abu Ali al-Isybili, Abu al-Hasan Ibn Usfur, dan Abu Hayyan al-Ghamathi. Seiring dengan kemajuan bahasa itu, karya-karya sastra bermunculan, seperti Al-’Iqd al-Farid karya Ibn Abd Rabbih, al-Dzakhirahji Mahasin Ahl al-Jazirah oleh Ibn Bassam, Kitab al-Qalaid buah karya al-Fath ibn Khaqan, dan banyak lagi yang lain.
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